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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Stille Mutation</span></h1>
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<p>Eine <b>stille Mutation</b> (synonym <i>stumme Mutation</i>) ist eine <a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a> in einer <a href="Offenes_Leseraster" class="mw-redirect" title="Offenes Leseraster">codierenden</a> Abfolge von <a href="Nukleins%C3%A4uren" title="Nukleinsäuren">Nukleinsäuren</a>, die sich nicht auf die <a href="Translation_(Biologie)" title="Translation (Biologie)">Proteinbiosynthese</a> eines neu entstehenden <a href="Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a> auswirkt.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eigenschaften">Eigenschaften</h2></div>
<p>Eine stille Mutation ist meistens eine <a href="Punktmutation" title="Punktmutation">Punktmutation</a> durch <a href="Genmutation#Substitution" title="Genmutation">Substitution</a>. Dabei wird ein <a href="Nukleotid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nukleotid">Nukleotid</a> gegen ein anderes getauscht. Das betroffene <a href="Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">Codon</a> wird dabei geändert, aber die codierte Aminosäure bleibt bei einer stillen Mutation gleich. Eine stille Mutation ohne Auswirkungen wird auch als <a href="Mutation#Keine_Folgen_–_neutrale_Mutationen" title="Mutation">neutrale Mutation</a> bezeichnet. Eine stille Mutation in einem <a href="Exon" title="Exon">Exon</a> wird als <i>synonyme Mutation</i> bezeichnet. Selbst eine nichtsynonyme Mutation kann eine stille Mutation sein, wenn die Auswirkung der Änderung einer codierten <a href="Aminos%C3%A4ure" class="mw-redirect" title="Aminosäure">Aminosäure</a> hinreichend gering ausfällt, d. h. wenn eine Aminosäure gegen eine ähnliche Aminosäure ausgetauscht wurde, die keinen Einfluss auf die Funktionsfähigkeit des Proteins hat.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Allerdings ist nicht jede synonyme Mutation eine stille Mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DOI10.1038/nrg2056_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOI10.1038/nrg2056-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eine synonyme Mutation kann die <a href="Sekund%C3%A4rstruktur" title="Sekundärstruktur">Sekundärstruktur</a> einer <a href="MRNA" title="MRNA">mRNA</a> ändern, die sich wiederum auf die Initiation und die Termination der <a href="Translation_(Biologie)" title="Translation (Biologie)">Translation</a> auswirkt.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bei einer synonymen Mutation kann sich die <a href="Kinetik_(Chemie)" title="Kinetik (Chemie)">Kinetik</a> der Verwendung der verschiedenen Codons für die gleiche Aminosäure bei der Translation am <a href="Ribosom" title="Ribosom">Ribosom</a> auf die <a href="Proteinfaltung" title="Proteinfaltung">Proteinfaltung</a> und somit auf Sekundär- und <a href="Terti%C3%A4rstruktur" title="Tertiärstruktur">Tertiärstruktur</a> sowie die <a href="Biologische_Aktivit%C3%A4t" title="Biologische Aktivität">biologische Aktivität</a> eines neu entstehenden Proteins auswirken und dadurch auch einen veränderten <a href="Ph%C3%A4notyp" title="Phänotyp">Phänotyp</a> bewirken, ohne dass sich die Aminosäuresequenz ändert.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid20617253_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20617253-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17716239_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17716239-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manche Codons werden aufgrund der vergleichsweise langsamen Bindung von <a href="TRNA" title="TRNA">tRNA</a> dann auch langsam während der Translation in eine Aminosäure übersetzt,<sup id="cite_ref-Kimchi2007_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimchi2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was sich entsprechend auf die <a href="Codon_Usage" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon Usage">bevorzugte Codonverwendung</a> sowie auf die Sekundärstruktur und die Abbaustabilität von mRNA auswirkt.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21567958_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21567958-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beispiele für Mutationen, die sich trotz korrekter Aminosäuresequenz auf den Phänotyp auswirken, sind das <a href="P-Glykoprotein" class="mw-redirect" title="P-Glykoprotein">p-Glykoprotein</a> (synonym <i>MDR1</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Kimchi2007_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimchi2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> und das <a href="Cystic_Fibrosis_Transmembrane_Conductance_Regulator" title="Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator">CFTR</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wo es bei manchen synonymen Mutationen durch Verzögerungen oder veränderte RNA-Strukturen während der Translation zu einer fehlerhaften Proteinfaltung kommen kann. Daneben können in seltenen Fällen auch Mutationen in <a href="Untranslatierte_Region" title="Untranslatierte Region">untranslatierten Regionen</a> die Lesart eines Codons beeinflussen, ohne dass dieses verändert ist. So wirkt das Basentriplett UGA normalerweise als <a href="Stopcodon" title="Stopcodon">Stopcodon</a>, kann aber in bestimmten Kontexten – abhängig von Sekundärstrukturen der mRNA – als Codon für <a href="Selenocystein" title="Selenocystein">Selenocystein</a> interpretiert werden.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anwendungen">Anwendungen</h2></div>
<p>Durch eine <i>Codon-Optimierung</i> kann die <a href="Genexpression" title="Genexpression">Genexpressionsrate</a> gesteigert werden, indem nur diejenigen 20 Aminosäurecodons verwendet werden, die in der jeweiligen Art am stärksten exprimiert werden.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eine gehäufte Verwendung suboptimaler Codons ist eine Methode zur <a href="Attenuierung" title="Attenuierung">Attenuierung</a> von viralen <a href="Lebendimpfstoff" title="Lebendimpfstoff">Lebendimpfstoffen</a>, die am <a href="Poliovirus" title="Poliovirus">Poliovirus</a> demonstriert wurde.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daneben werden stille Mutationen bei einer <a href="Klonierung" title="Klonierung">Klonierung</a> eingeführt, um neue <a href="Restriktionsstelle" title="Restriktionsstelle">Restriktionsstellen</a> für <a href="Restriktionsenzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriktionsenzyme">Restriktionsenzyme</a> zu erzeugen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li>Z. Zhang, M. A. Miteva, L. Wang, E. Alexov: <i>Analyzing effects of naturally occurring missense mutations.</i> In: <i>Computational and mathematical methods in medicine.</i> Band 2012, 2012, S. 805827, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012%2F805827">10.1155/2012/805827</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22577471?dopt=Abstract">PMID 22577471</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3346971/">PMC 3346971</a> (freier Volltext).</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://watcut.uwaterloo.ca/template.php"><i>WatCut</i></a>, ein Online-Tool zur <a href="Restriktionskarte" title="Restriktionskarte">Restriktionsanalyse</a>, zur Suche nach stillen Mutationen und für <a href="RFLP" class="mw-redirect" title="RFLP">RFLP</a>-Simulationen.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Richards-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Richards_1-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Julia E. Richards: <i>The Human Genome.</i> Academic Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-080-91865-5, S. 571.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Teng, T. Madej, A. Panchenko, E. Alexov: <i>Modeling effects of human single nucleotide polymorphisms on protein-protein interactions.</i> In: <i>Biophysical Journal.</i> Band 96, Nummer 6, März 2009, S. 2178–2188, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2008.12.3904">10.1016/j.bpj.2008.12.3904</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19289044?dopt=Abstract">PMID 19289044</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2717281/">PMC 2717281</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. V. Chamary, J. L. Parmley, L. D. Hurst: <i>Hearing silence: non-neutral evolution at synonymous sites in mammals.</i> In: <i><a href="Nature_Reviews_Genetics" title="Nature Reviews Genetics">Nature Reviews Genetics</a>.</i> Band 7, Nummer 2, Februar 2006, S. 98–108, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg1770">10.1038/nrg1770</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16418745?dopt=Abstract">PMID 16418745</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-DOI10.1038/nrg2056-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-DOI10.1038/nrg2056_4-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Goymer: <i>Synonymous mutations break their silence.</i> In: <i>Nature Reviews Genetics.</i> 8, 2007, S. 92, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2056">10.1038/nrg2056</a></span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Zhou, E. A. Ko, W. Gu, I. Lim, H. Bang, J. H. Ko: <i>Non-silent story on synonymous sites in voltage-gated ion channel genes.</i> In: <i><a href="PLOS_ONE" title="PLOS ONE">PLOS ONE</a>.</i> Band 7, Nummer 10, 2012, S. e48541, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048541">10.1371/journal.pone.0048541</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23119053?dopt=Abstract">PMID 23119053</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3485311/">PMC 3485311</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. A. Shabalina, A. Y. Ogurtsov, N. A. Spiridonov: <i>A periodic pattern of mRNA secondary structure created by the genetic code.</i> In: <i>Nucleic acids research.</i> Band 34, Nummer 8, 2006, S. 2428–2437, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/nar%2Fgkl287">10.1093/nar/gkl287</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16682450?dopt=Abstract">PMID 16682450</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1458515/">PMC 1458515</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Campbell-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary K. Campbell: <i>Biochemistry.</i> Cengage Learning, 2016, ISBN 978-1-337-51435-4, S. 391.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pmid20617253-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20617253_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Czech A, Fedyunin I, Zhang G, Ignatova Z: <cite style="font-style:italic">Silent mutations in sight: co-variations in tRNA abundance as a key to unravel consequences of silent mutations</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Mol Biosyst</cite>. 6. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>10</span>, Oktober 2010, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>1767–72</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039/c004796c">10.1039/c004796c</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20617253?dopt=Abstract">PMID 20617253</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Stille+Mutation&rft.atitle=Silent+mutations+in+sight%3A+co-variations+in+tRNA+abundance+as+a+key+to+unravel+consequences+of+silent+mutations&rft.au=Czech+A%2C+Fedyunin+I%2C+Zhang+G%2C+...&rft.date=2010-10&rft.doi=10.1039%2Fc004796c&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=10&rft.jtitle=Mol+Biosyst&rft.pages=1767-72&rft.pmid=20617253&rft.volume=6.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Komar AA: <cite style="font-style:italic">Genetics. SNPs, silent but not invisible</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Science</cite>. 315. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>5811</span>, Januar 2007, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>466–7</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1138239">10.1126/science.1138239</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17185559?dopt=Abstract">PMID 17185559</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/315/5811/466">sciencemag.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Stille+Mutation&rft.atitle=Genetics.+SNPs%2C+silent+but+not+invisible&rft.au=Komar+AA&rft.date=2007-01&rft.doi=10.1126%2Fscience.1138239&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=5811&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=466-7&rft.pmid=17185559&rft.volume=315.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pmid17716239-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17716239_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Komar AA: <cite style="font-style:italic">Silent SNPs: impact on gene function and phenotype</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Pharmacogenomics</cite>. 8. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>8</span>, August 2007, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>1075–80</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2217/14622416.8.8.1075">10.2217/14622416.8.8.1075</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17716239?dopt=Abstract">PMID 17716239</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Stille+Mutation&rft.atitle=Silent+SNPs%3A+impact+on+gene+function+and+phenotype&rft.au=Komar+AA&rft.date=2007-08&rft.doi=10.2217%2F14622416.8.8.1075&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Pharmacogenomics&rft.pages=1075-80&rft.pmid=17716239&rft.volume=8.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Z. Zhang, M. A. Miteva, L. Wang, E. Alexov: <i>Analyzing effects of naturally occurring missense mutations.</i> In: <i>Computational and mathematical methods in medicine.</i> Band 2012, 2012, S. 805827, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012%2F805827">10.1155/2012/805827</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22577471?dopt=Abstract">PMID 22577471</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3346971/">PMC 3346971</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kimchi2007-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Kimchi2007_12-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Kimchi2007_12-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Kimchi-Sarfaty, J. M. Oh, I.-W. Kim, Z. E. Sauna, A. M. Calcagno, S. V. Ambudkar, M. M. Gottesman,: <cite style="font-style:italic">A "Silent" Polymorphism in the MDR1 Gene Changes Substrate Specificity</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Science</cite>. 315. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>5811</span>, 26. Januar 2007, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>525–8</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1135308">10.1126/science.1135308</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17185560?dopt=Abstract">PMID 17185560</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Stille+Mutation&rft.atitle=A+%22Silent%22+Polymorphism+in+the+MDR1+Gene+Changes+Substrate+Specificity&rft.au=C.+Kimchi-Sarfaty%2C+J.+M.+Oh%2C+I.-W.+Kim%2C+...&rft.date=2007-01-26&rft.doi=10.1126%2Fscience.1135308&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=5811&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=525-8&rft.pmid=17185560&rft.volume=315.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-pmid21567958-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid21567958_13-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Angov E: <cite style="font-style:italic">Codon usage: nature's roadmap to expression and folding of proteins</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Biotechnol J</cite>. 6. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>6</span>, Juni 2011, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>650–9</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002/biot.201000332">10.1002/biot.201000332</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21567958?dopt=Abstract">PMID 21567958</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3166658/">PMC 3166658</a> (freier Volltext).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Stille+Mutation&rft.atitle=Codon+usage%3A+nature%27s+roadmap+to+expression+and+folding+of+proteins&rft.au=Angov+E&rft.date=2011-06&rft.doi=10.1002%2Fbiot.201000332&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Biotechnol+J&rft.pages=650-9&rft.pmc=3166658&rft.pmid=21567958&rft.volume=6.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Bartoszewski, J. Króliczewski, A. Piotrowski, A. J. Jasiecka, S. Bartoszewska, B. Vecchio-Pagan, L. Fu, A. Sobolewska, S. Matalon, G. R. Cutting, S. M. Rowe, J. F. Collawn: <i>Codon bias and the folding dynamics of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator.</i> In: <i>Cellular & molecular biology letters.</i> Band 21, 2016, S. 23, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s11658-016-0025-x">10.1186/s11658-016-0025-x</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28536625?dopt=Abstract">PMID 28536625</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5415761/">PMC 5415761</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria J. Berry, Laila Banu, Yoyi Chen et al.: <cite style="font-style:italic">Recognition of UGA as a selenocysteine codon in Type I deiodinase requires sequences in the 3′ untranslated region</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Nature</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>353</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>6341</span>, 1991, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>273–276</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/353273a0">10.1038/353273a0</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Stille+Mutation&rft.atitle=Recognition+of+UGA+as+a+selenocysteine+codon+in+Type+I+deiodinase+requires+sequences+in+the+3%E2%80%B2+untranslated+region&rft.au=Maria+J.+Berry%2C+Laila+Banu%2C+Yoyi+Chen+et+al.&rft.date=1991&rft.doi=10.1038%2F353273a0&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=6341&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=273-276&rft.volume=353" style="display:none"> </span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Kotsopoulou, V. N. Kim, A. J. Kingsman, S. M. Kingsman, K. A. Mitrophanous: A Rev-independent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-based vector that exploits a codon-optimized HIV-1 gag-pol gene. In: <i>J Virol.</i> (2000), Bd. 74(10), S. 4839–52. <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10775623?dopt=Abstract">PMID 10775623</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC112007/">PMC 112007</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Mueller, J. R. Coleman, E. Wimmer: <i>Putting synthesis into biology: a viral view of genetic engineering through de novo gene and genome synthesis.</i> In: <i>Chemistry & biology.</i> Band 16, Nummer 3, März 2009, S. 337–347, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chembiol.2009.03.002">10.1016/j.chembiol.2009.03.002</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19318214?dopt=Abstract">PMID 19318214</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2728443/">PMC 2728443</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
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